The Quest for Individual Freedom in Liberalism

Liberalism is one of the principal doctrines in Western political philosophy. Its core values are typically expressed in terms of individual freedom and equality. How these two ought to be understood is a matter of dispute so that they are often differently declined in different places or among different groups. Even so, it is typical to associate liberalism with democracy, capitalism, freedom of religion, and human rights. Liberalism is has been mostly defended in England and the United States. Among the authors that most contributed to the development of liberalism, John Locke (1632-1704) and John Stuart Mill (1808-1873). Early Liberalism Political and civic behavior describable as liberal can be found across the history of humanity, but liberalism as a full-fledged doctrine can be traced back to approximately three hundred and fifty years ago, in northern Europe, England, and Holland in particular. It should be remarked, however, that the history of liberalism is entrenched with the one of an earlier cultural movement, namely humanism, which flourished in central Europe, especially in Florence, in the 1300 and 1400s, reaching its apex during Renaissance, in fifteen hundreds. It is indeed in those countries that most delved into the exercise of free trade and exchange of people and ideas that liberalism thrived. The Revolution of 1688 marks, from this perspective, an important date for liberal doctrine, underlined by the success of entrepreneurs such as Lord Shaftesbury and authors such as John Locke, who returned to England after 1688 and resolved to finally publish his masterpiece, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690), wherein he provided also a defense of individual liberties that are key to the liberalist doctrine. Modern Liberalism Despite its recent origins, liberalism has an articulated history testifying of its key role in modern Western society. The two great revolutions, in America (1776) and France (1789) refined some of the key ideas behind liberalism: democracy, equal rights, human rights, the separation between State and religion and freedom of religion, the focus on the individual well-being. The 19th century was a period of intense refinement of the values of liberalism, which had to face the novel economic and social conditions posed by incipient industrial revolution. Not only authors such as John Stuart Mill gave a fundamental contribution to liberalism, bringing to the philosophical attention topics such as freedom of speech, the liberties of women and of slaves; but also the birth of the socialist and communist doctrines, among others under the influence of Karl Marx and the French utopists, forced liberalists to refine their views and bond into more cohesive political groups. In the 20th century, liberalism was restated to adjust to the changing economic situation by authors such as Ludwig von Mises and John Maynard Keynes. The politics and lifestyle diffused by the Unites States throughout the world, then, gave a key impulse to the success of liberal lifestyle, at least in practice if not in principle. In more recent decades, liberalism has been used also to address the pressing issues of the crisis of capitalism and the globalized society. As the 21st century enters into its central phase, liberalism is still a driving doctrine that inspires political leaders and individual citizens. It is the duty of all those who live in a civil society to confront with such a doctrine. Sources: Bourdieu, Pierre.  The Essence of Neoliberalism.  http://mondediplo.com/1998/12/08bourdieu. Britannica Online Encyclopedia.  Liberalism.  https://www.britannica.com/topic/liberalism. The Liberty Fund.  Online Library. http://oll.libertyfund.org/. Hayek, Friedrich A.  Liberalism.   http://www.angelfire.com/rebellion/oldwhig4ever/ .Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Liberalism.  https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/liberalism/.

The Classical Theories Of Motivation - 1393 Words

EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION INTRODUCTION Gone are the days when employees were regarded as merely one of the supporting features of organizational success. The term ‘Human Resources’, used to denote the employees of an organization, reflects the contemporary concept of the employees in an organization as being the drivers of its success. the term resources denotes the consideration of employees as an asset to the company which needs to be efficiently utilized and motivated in order to reap benefits from its efforts. The greater focus on the organizational employees acted as the driver for the development of more humanistic approaches to management as well (Pirson Lawrence, 2009). Motivation is regarded as one of the key functions of management. With the focus shifting to catering to the human element of the employee needs apart from the conventional monetary ones, various motivational theories were developed in this regard. The aim of this paper is to highlight the shortcomings of classical theories of motivation that led to the development of more comprehensive contemporary motivational theories. CLASSICAL THEORIES OF MOTIVATION The three most acknowledged classical theories of motivation are Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s two factor theory and Theory of X and Y. Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs claims that in order to motivate employees, five levels of their needs need to be catered to in a priority order. The position of the employee in the organization determinedShow MoreRelatedQuestions On The Industrial Revolution1668 Words   |  7 Pages RAFAEL Z. I/O PSYCHOLOGY FINAL PAPER 1 More Bang For Your Buck? Pay vs. Motivation Rafael Zavala Fall 2015 RAFAEL Z. I/O PSYCHOLOGY FINAL PAPER 2 Table of Contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦3 Review of Major Theory†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.4 Review of Chosen studies†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.4-7 Rà ©fà ©rences†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..8 Author’s Reflection†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦9 RAFAEL Z. I/O PSYCHOLOGY FINAL PAPER 3 Ever since the marking of the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840)Read MoreClassical And Human Relations Management Theory1504 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction This is a report based on the classical and human relations management theorist. The main objective of the report is to critically evaluate the classical and human relations management theories approaches into today’s working place and society. To begin with, management theories are a set of ideas, introduced and presented mostly by professors and psychologist, to help direct managers and supervisors plan, manage, control their businesses and workplaces. In other words, management theoristsRead MoreClassical Viewpoint Of Management Essay842 Words   |  4 Pages In the classical viewpoint of management, great time and effort is put into the scientific method and scientific management. The scientific method is used in order to determine the best way to accomplishing each assigned task. The classic viewpoint also uses the theory that persons need to be scientifically selected and then trained to conduct duties. Encompassed in this viewpoint is the implication that management develop and assign all tasks, and employees are responsible for the completion ofRead MoreCritically Evaluate the Classical and Human Relations Approaches of Management Theory1679 Words   |  7 PagesCritically evaluate the classical and human relations approaches of management theory. Your essay must clearly define the term â€Å"management theory† and include industry examples to illustrate your answers. In order to define the term management theory and to critically evaluate classical and human approaches it is also important to discuss what shaped the thinking of management theory development. In seeking to define management one must also define the word theory. Theory is defined in the ConciseRead MoreHow can leaders motivate staff in order to improve productivity and job satisfaction?1669 Words   |  7 Pageshighlight the use of management theories in relation to productivity and job satisfaction. This essay shall discuss how leaders can motivate employees in order to improve the overall productivity and job satisfaction. I will be looking at theories in relation to how they are categorised, also how different management theories can be implemented by a leader. The essay will analyse both the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that are relative to applicable management theories and from the analysis there willRead More Management Theories Essay1107 Words   |  5 PagesManagement Theories The Classical School of Management Theory The Classical School is thought to have originated around the year 1900 and dominated management thinking into the 1920s, focusing on the efficiency of the work process. It has three schools of thinking: Bureaucratic management, which focuses on rules and procedures, hierarchy and clear division of labour; Scientific management, which looks at ‘the best way’ to do a job; and Administrative management, which emphasises the flowRead MoreEssay on Theory X and Theory Y1295 Words   |  6 PagesTheory X and Theory Y, developed by Douglas McGregor, grew out of opposition towards classical management methods. Classical management theorists, such as Fredrick Taylor, focused on scientific training and efficiency and did not account for personal and behavioral issues, such as management styles or job satisfaction. McGregor saw these deficiencies in the classical school of management which lead him to develop a theory of management that would factor the importance of the individual worker. IfRead MoreThe Human Relations Management Theory1741 Words   |  7 PagesManagement Theory Ashley Ager ORG 502-Effective Organizations: Theory and Practice Colorado State University-Global Campus Dr. Victoria Figiel November 30, 2014 The Human Relations Management Theory The Human Relations management theory is more involved in the people’s issues due to the interpersonal and organizational relationships while classical theories focused more on the mechanics of the business or organization (Hill, n.d.). The focus of this theory is aroundRead MoreThe Rise of the Factory System during the Industrial Revolution1245 Words   |  5 Pagestwentieth, with a flourish of management theories ranging from classical theories of management to the Japanese management model. The present day management theory is the outcome of the many interdisciplinary efforts of a wide range of people. The rise of the factory system during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, where mechanization or automation and mass production were the pillars of productivity, was the start of the modern day organization. Management theory was, however, slow to evolve. ThereRead MoreClassical and Neo Classical Theories1300 Words   |  6 PagesClassical and Neo-Classical Theories of Management Classical management theory There are three well-established theories of classical management: Taylor,s Theory of Scientific Management, Fayol’s Administrative Theory, Weber’s Theory of Bureaucracy. Although these schools, or theories, developed historical sequence, later ideas have not replaced earlier ones. Instead, each new school has tended to complement or coexist with previous ones. Theory recognizing the role that management plays in an

Customer Fraud and Business Responses Free Essays

A customer is a very important element in the chain of supply as he or she is the end user of goods and services provided at the market place. It is said that a customer is an asset to business owners and should be treated like a king or queen. Every individual is a customer as people are deemed to buy goods and services for daily use. We will write a custom essay sample on Customer Fraud and Business Responses or any similar topic only for you Order Now The buying decisions of customers are very critical and are influenced by a number of factors (Wallace, K. 1999). Once the expectations of customers are not met he or she is turned off hence fails to buy goods or services. As a customer I have experience in various issues that turned me off and opted to buy goods from another place. There are number of small insignificant turnoffs that have ever influenced my buying decisions. First, dirt store is one of the major turnoffs which influenced my buying decision as I could not withstand the bad smell from the store. The store had a lot of dust and its goods were dirty and this influenced my decision to buy from another place. A second turnoff was high prices of commodities as compared to other neighboring store markets. Considering the economic hardships I had to move to a store that offered the same products at relatively lower price. Third, the location of the market place is out of way and this led to change of mind and considered a more accessible market place. Fourth, poor customer service is one main issue that has influenced my buying decisions in the past. Poor customer service in this aspect refers to unfriendly sellers, taking too long to respond to customer needs and being unhelpful. This has been one of the worst experiences that influenced my decision to buy from another place. 2. Describe in your own words the three categories of customer turnoffs. Give five specific examples of each. Satisfaction of customers is one major achievement of an organization or business entity as it results to creation of good trading environment (Keep, B. 2002). There are three main categories of customer turnoffs such as value, systems performance and people. Value of service or goods offered to customer is important because once customers are not satisfied with what is offered they change their buying decisions. For example defect goods, expired products, charging high prices for poor transport services, non-functional machine parts and Inferior goods. Systems performance is another customer turnoff especially when customer expectations are not met in provision of goods or services. The customer always expects to get the best but in certain occasions the centrally happens. For example, medication provided by a qualified doctor which does not result to treatment of the illness, buying of a laptop hence turning out to be non-functional or entering a motel in expectation of good services but its condition turn out to be pathetic. Another example is a busy bank that has a few number of tellers or promotions whereby customers expects more but they get unworthy goods. A third category of customer turn off is People which relates to a situation on how customers are handled within organizations or any other business entity. Examples in this category include failing to address a client well in an organization, failing to greet a customer or client, use of abusive words to clients, defrauding of clients by hiking prices of goods or services and taking too long to respond a customer for any clarification. References Wallace, K. (1999). Why People Don’t Buy Things: Five Proven Steps to Connect with Your Customers and Dramatically Increase Your Sales, Perseus Publishing. Keep, B. (2002). Customer Fraud and Business Responses: Let the Marketer Beware, Quorum Books. How to cite Customer Fraud and Business Responses, Papers

Consumer, Medical Profession and Negligence Essay Sample free essay sample

The altering doctor-patient relationship and commercialisation of modern medical pattern has affected the pattern of medical specialty. On the one manus. there can be unfavourable consequences of intervention and on the other manus the patient suspects negligence as a cause of their agony. There is an increasing tendency of medical judicial proceeding by unsated patients. The Supreme Court has laid down guidelines for the condemnable prosecution of a physician. This has decreased the unneeded torment of physicians. As the medical profession has been brought under the commissariats of the Consumer Protection Act. 1986. the patients have an easy method of judicial proceeding. There should be legal consciousness among the physicians that will assist them in the proper recording of medical direction inside informations. This will assist them in supporting their instance during any allegation of medical carelessness. Introduction The classical construct of a doctor-patient relationship born in the aureate yearss of household doctors has undergone a drastic alteration due to dramatic promotion in medical engineering. handiness of sophisticated imaging systems. high tech electronics. and preponderance of new diseases. With the huge paces in engineering. wellness attention has emerged as a profitable sector pulling investors from varied backgrounds. Like other professionals. the medical work forces are apt to pay amendss for their carelessness under the jurisprudence of civil wrongs. However. the answerability of the physicians under the jurisprudence of professional carelessness has emerged as a problematic issue among the medical fraternity all over the state after the passage of the Consumer Protection Act 1986. which has non merely changed the jurisprudence of medical carelessness. but created an cheap and rapid redress against medical malpractice. The opinion of the Honourable Supreme Court of India in Indian Medical Association vs VP Shantha AIR 1996 SC for the first clip held that medical services ought to be brought under the horizon of Consumer Protection Act since the patient is like a consumer and the discharge of responsibility of the physician is a service. This has given a new dimension to the jurisprudence of medical carelessness and compensation by transforming the jurisprudence from ‘a sealed book to a life letter’ and by doing the jurisprudence as ‘inheritance of the hapless from patrimony of rich’ . The pronouncement of the Apex Court has been greeted with assorted feelings by common people on one side and the medical profession on the other. Problem of Blameworthiness in Medical Profession From twentieth Century onwards. it has been witnessed consciousness among people sing the cardinal rights guaranteed by the fundamental laws in other states and by the Constitution of India has increased. This has brought the medical profession under sustained examination of both the populace and by the tribunals. Health attention professionals have faced legal actions instituted by the patients non merely in India but in other states as good. In the class of pattern of medical specialty. health care professionals. merely like other people in different countries. have to confront mistakes despite prudence and attention. such as incorrect diagnosing and intervention. or by otherwise making something. which is termed as â€Å"wrong† or â€Å"harmful† – to their patients. Any sort of incorrect action or misjudgement may ensue in the decease of a patient. This fallibility. inherent in the medical profession like in any other human action ( s ) . is straight related with legal action. In fact. in the medical field. effects are high and serious. Health attention professionals will hold to larn to bear with non merely their proficient know-how. but besides with their moral fallibility in public presentation of their responsibility. It is said: A good individual is non described by a tabular matter of individual actions and picks bereft of context but instead as the Greeks saw it. by their â€Å"self-making† or the ability to larn from state of affairss and. in effects to alter themselves for the better. Patients should constantly be informed about the errors in diagnosing or direction – that is portion of truth-telling and an issue that is difficult to reason against. To conceal such errors from patients or household is a misdemeanor of trut h-telling in every domain of life. Important Definitions: 1. Who can register a Ailment?A consumer or any recognized consumer association. i. e. . voluntary consumer association registered under the Companies Act. 1956 or any other jurisprudence for the clip being in force. whether the consumer is a member of such association or non. or the cardinal or province authorities. 2. Consumer A consumer is a individual who hires or helps of any services for a consideration that has been paid or promised or partially paid and partially promised or under any system of deferred payment and includes any donee of such services other than the individual hires or helps of the services for consideration paid or promised. or under any system of deferred payment. when such services are availed of with the blessing of the first mentioned individual. This definition is broad plenty to include a patient who simply promises to pay. 3. Ailment A ailment is an allegation in composing made by a Complainant. i. e. . a consumer that he or she has suffered loss or harm as a consequence of any lack of service. 4. Lack of service Deficiency of service means any mistake. imperfectness. shortcoming. or insufficiency in the quality. nature. or mode of public presentation that is required to be maintained by or under any jurisprudence for the clip being in force or has been undertaken to be performed by a individual in pursuit of a contract or otherwise in relation to any service. 5. Where is a ailment filed? A ailment can be filed in1 ) the District Forum if the value of services and compensation claimed is less than 20 lakh rupees. 2 ) before the State Commission. if the value of the goods or services and the compensation claimed does non transcend more than 1 crore rupees. or 3 ) in the National Commission. if the value of the goods or services and the compensation exceeds more than 1 crore rupees. There is a minimum fee for registering a ailment before the territory consumer redressal forums. 6. Provision for entreaty An entreaty against the determination of the District Forum can be filed before the State Commission. An entreaty will so travel from the State Commission to the National Commission and from the National Commission to the Supreme Court. The clip bound within which the entreaty should be filed is 30 yearss from the day of the month of the determination in all instances. Powers of the consumer redressal forums The forums have a assortment of powers. They are1 ) the evocation and enforcing of the attending of any suspect or informant and analyzing the informant under curse. 2 ) the find and production of any papers or other stuff object producible as grounds. 3 ) the response of grounds on affidavits. 4 ) the evocation of any adept grounds or testimony.5 ) the requisitioning of the study of the concerned analysis or trial from the appropriate research lab or from any other relevant beginning. 6 ) issue of any committee for the scrutiny of any informant. and 7 ) any other affair which may be prescribed. Short Title| Full Title| Level of Establishment| No of Members| Type of Members| Jurisdiction in term of cost of goods or services| District forum| Consumer difference redressal forum| District level| 3| – District Judge. – 1 member of distinction. – 1 lady societal worker| Dispute affecting upto Rs. 20 Lacs. | State commission| Consumer disputes redressal commission| State level| 3| – High tribunal justice. – 1 member of distinction.– 1 lady societal worker| Dispute affecting between Rs. 20 Lacs and 1 crore. | Nationalcommission| Consumer differenceredressal commission| National level| 5| – Supreme tribunal justice. – 3 members of distinction.– 1 lady societal Worker| Dispute affectingmore than Rs. 1 crore| Table 1Adjudication of liability takes topographic pointThe procedure before the competent forum will be set in gesture in the undermentioned mode. When the Complainant files a written ailment. the forum. after acknowledging the ailment. sends a written notice to the opposite party inquiring for a written version to be submitted within 30 yearss. Thereafter. subsequent to proper examination. the forum would inquire for either filing of an affidavit or production of grounds in the signifier of interrogations. adept grounds. medical literature. and judicial determinations. Negligence is merely the failure to exert due attention. The three ingredients of carelessness are as follows: 1. The suspect owes a responsibility of attention to the complainant. 2. The suspect has breached this responsibility of attention.3. The complainant has suffered an hurt due to this breach. Medical carelessness is no different. It is merely that in a medical carelessness instance.most frequently. the physician is the suspect. When does a responsibility arise?It is good known that a physician owes a responsibility of attention to his patient. This responsibility can either be a contractual responsibility or a responsibility originating out of civil wrong jurisprudence. In some instances. nevertheless. though a doctor-patient relationship is non established. the tribunals have imposed a responsibility upon the physician. In the words of the Supreme Court â€Å"every physician. at the governmental infirmary or elsewhere. has a professional duty to widen his services with due expertness for protecting life† ( Parmanand Kataria vs. Union of India ) . These instances are nevertheless. clearly restricted to state of affairss where there is danger to the life of the individual. Impliedly. therefore. in other fortunes the physician does non owe a responsibility. What is the responsibility owed? The responsibility owed by a physician towards his patient. in the words of the Supreme Court is to â€Å"bring to his undertaking a sensible grade of accomplishment and knowledge† and to exert â€Å"a sensible grade of care† ( Laxman vs. Trimback ) . The physician. in other words. does non hold to adhere to the highest or drop to the lowest grade of attention and competency in the visible radiation of the circumstance. A physician. hence. does non hold to guarantee that every patient who comes to him is cured. He has to merely guarantee that he confers a sensible grade of attention and competency. Reasonable grade of attention Reasonable grade of attention and accomplishment means that the grade of attention and competency that an â€Å"ordinary competent member of the profession who professes to hold those accomplishments would exert in the circumstance in inquiry. † At this phase. it may be necessary to observe the differentiation between the criterion of attention and the grade of attention. The criterion of attention is a changeless and remains the same in all instances. It is the demand that the behavior of the physician be sensible and need non needfully conform to the highest grade of attention or the lowest grade of attention possible. The grade of attention is a variable and depends on the circumstance. It is used to mention to what really amounts to reasonableness in a given state of affairs. Thus. though the same criterion of attention is expected from a Renaissance man and a specializer. the grade of attention would be different. In other words. both are expected to take sensible attenti on but what sums to sensible attention with respect to the specializer differs from what sum of sensible attention is standard for the Renaissance man. In fact. the jurisprudence expects the specializer to exert the ordinary accomplishment of this forte and non of any ordinary physician. Though the tribunals have accepted the demand to enforce a higher grade of responsibility on a specializer. they have refused to take down it in the instance of a novitiate. Another inquiry that arises is with respect to the cognition that is expected from a physician. Should it include the latest developments in the field. hence require changeless updating or is it adequate to follow what has been traditionally followed? It has been recognized by the tribunals that what amounts to reasonableness alterations with clip. The criterion. as stated clearly herein before requires that the physician possess sensible cognition. Hence. we can reason that a physician has to constantly update his cognition to run into the criterion expected of him. Furthermore. since merely sensible cognition is required. it may non be necessary for him to be cognizant of all the developments that have taken topographic point. We have. until now. examined the responsibility of a physician in so far as handling a patient is concerned or in naming the complaint. Doctors are. nevertheless. imposed with a responsibility to take the consent of a person/patient before executing Acts of the Apostless like surgical operations and in some instances intervention every bit good. To sum up. any act that requires contact with the patient has to be consented by the patient. A responsibility of attention is imposed on the physicians in taking the patient’s consent. Naturally. a inquiry arises as to what is this responsibility of attention. As per the judicial dictums. this responsibility is to unwrap all such information as would be relevant or necessary for the patient to do a determination. Therefore. the responsibility does non widen to unwraping al l possible information in this respect. Furthermore. this responsibility does non widen to warning a patient of all the normal attendant hazards of an operation. The criterion of attention required of a physician while obtaining consent is once more that of a sensible physician. as in other instances. When does the liability arise? The liability of a physician arises non when the patient has suffered any hurt. but when the hurt has resulted due to the behavior of the physician. which has fallen below that of sensible attention. In other words. the physician is non apt for every hurt suffered by a patient. He is apt for merely those that are a effect of a breach of his responsibility. Hence. one time the being of a responsibility has been established. the complainant must still turn out the breach of responsibility and the causing. In instance there is no breach or the breach did non do the harm. the physician will non be apt. In order to demo the breach of responsibility. the load on the complainant would be to first demo what is considered as sensible under those fortunes and so that the behavior of the physician was below this grade. It must be noted that it is non sufficient to turn out a breach. to simply demo that there exists a organic structure of sentiment which goes against the practice/conduct of the physician. With respect to causing. the tribunal has held that it must be shown that of all the possible grounds for the hurt. the breach of responsibility of the physician was the most likely cause. It is non sufficient to demo that the breach of responsibility is simply one of the likely causes. Hence. if the possible causes of an hurt are the carelessness of a 3rd party. an accident. or a breach of responsibility attention of the physician. so it must be established that the breach of responsibility of attention of the physician was the most likely cause of the hurt to dispatch the load of cogent evidence on the complainant. Normally. the liability arises merely when the complainant is able to dispatch the load on him of turn outing carelessness. However. in some instances like a swab left over the venters of a patient or the leg amputated alternatively of being put in a dramatis personae to handle the break. the rule of ‘res ipsa loquitur’ ( intending thereby ‘the thing speaks for itself’ ) might come into drama. The following are the necessary conditions of this rule. 1. Complete control rests with the physician. 2. It is the general experience of world that the accident in inquiry does non go on without carelessness. This rule is frequently misunderstood as a regulation of grounds. which it is non. It is a rule in the jurisprudence of civil wrongs. When this rule is applied. the load is on the doctor/defendant to explicate how the incident could hold occurred without carelessness. In the absence of any such account. liability of the physician arises. Normally. a physician is held apt for merely his Acts of the Apostless ( other than instances of vicarious liability ) . However. in some instances. a physician can be held apt for the Acts of the Apostless of another individual which injures the patient. The demand for such a liability may originate when the individual perpetrating the act may non owe a responsibility of attention at all to the patient or that in perpetrating the act he has non breached any responsibility. A typical illustration of a instance where such a state of affairs may o riginate is in the instance of a surgery. If a junior physician is involved as portion of the squad. so his responsibility. every bit far as the exercising of the specializer accomplishment is concerned. is to seek the advice or aid of a senior physician. He will hold discharged his responsibility one time he does this and will non be apt even if he really commits the act which causes the hurt. In such a instance. it is the responsibility of the senior physician to hold advised him decently. If he did non make so. so he would be the one responsible for the hurt caused to the patient. though he did non perpetrate the act. When there is no liability A physician is non needfully apt in all instances where a patient has suffered an hurt. This may either be due to the fact that he has a valid defence or that he has non breached the responsibility of attention. Mistake of judgement can either be a mere mistake of judgement or mistake of judgement due to negligence. Merely in the instance of the former. it has been recognized by the tribunals as non being a breach of the responsibility of attention. It can be described as the acknowledgment in jurisprudence of the human fallibility in all domains of life. A mere mistake of judgement occurs when a physician makes a determination that turns out to be incorrect. It is state of affairs in which merely in retrospect can we state there was an mistake. At the clip when the determination was made. it did non look incorrectly. If. nevertheless. due consideration of all the factors was non taken. so it would amount to an mistake of judgement due to carelessness. Judicial Interpretation of Medical Negligence Liability By and big the undermentioned legal issues have been addressed and responded to by different forums and Courts in India. Charge of Medical Negligence against Professional Doctors From the clip of Lord Denning until now it has been held in several judgements that a charge of professional carelessness against the medical professional stood on a different terms from a charge of carelessness against the driver of a motor auto. The load of cogent evidence is correspondingly greater on the individual who alleges carelessness against a physician. It is a known fact that with the best accomplishment in the universe. things sometimes went incorrect in medical intervention or surgical operation. A physician was non to be held negligent merely because something went incorrect. The National Commission every bit good as the Apex Court in catena of determinations has held that the physician is non apt for carelessness because of person else of better accomplishment or cognition would hold prescribed a different intervention or operated in a different manner. He is non guilty of carelessness if he has acted in conformity with the pattern accepted as proper by a sensible org anic structure of medical professionals. The Hon’ble Supreme Court in the instance of Dr. Laxman Balkrishna vs. Dr. Trimbak. Air 1969 SC 128. has held the above position that is still considered to be a landmark judgement for make up ones minding a instance of carelessness. In the instance of Indian Medical Association vs. Santha. the Apex Court has decided that the accomplishment of a medical practician differs from physician to physician and it is incumbent upon the Complainant to turn out that a physician was negligent in the line of intervention that resulted in the life of the patient. Therefore. a Judge can happen a physician guilty merely when it is proved that he has fallen short of the criterion of sensible medical attention. The rule of Res-Ipsa-Loquitur has non been by and large followed by the Consumer Courts in India including the National Commission or even by the Apex Court in make up ones minding the instance under this Act. In catena of determinations. it has been held that it is for the Complainant to turn out the carelessness or lack in service by abducing adept grounds or sentiment and this fact is to be proved beyond all sensible uncertainties. Mere allegation of carelessness will be of no aid to the Complainant. What Constitutes Me dical Negligence? Failure of an operation and side effects are non negligence. The term carelessness is defined as the absence or deficiency of attention that a sensible individual should hold taken in the fortunes of the instance. In the allegation of carelessness in a instance of wrist bead. the undermentioned observations were made. Nothing has been mentioned in the ailment or in the evidences of entreaty about the type of attention desired from the physician in which he failed. It is non said anyplace what type of carelessness was done during the class of the operation. Nervousnesss may be cut down at the clip of operation and mere film editing of a nervus does non amount to carelessness. It is non said that it has been intentionally done. To the contrary it is besides non said that the nervousnesss were cut in the operation and it was non cut at the clip of the accident. No adept grounds whatsoever has been produced. Merely the study of the Chief Medical Officer of Haridwar has been produced wherein it said that the patient is a instance of post-traumatic wrist bead. It is non said that it is due to any operation or the carelessness of the physician. The mere allegation will non do out a instance of carelessness. unless it is proved by dependable grounds and is supported by adept grounds. It is true that the operation has been performed. It is besides true that the Complainant has many disbursals but unless the carelessness of the physician is proved. she is non entitled to any compensation. Standard of Care It is now a settled rule of jurisprudence that a medical practician will convey to his undertaking a sensible grade of accomplishment and cognition and must exert a sensible grade of attention. Neither the really highest nor the really lowest grade of attention and competency judged in the visible radiation of fortunes in each instance is what the jurisprudence requires. Judged from this yardstick. post-operative infection or shortening of the leg was non due to any carelessness or lack in service on the portion of the opposite party Appellant. Deficiency in service therefore can non be fastened on the opposite party. In a instance that led to ocular damage as a side consequence. the undermentioned observations were made. The literature with respect to lariago clearly mentioned that the side consequence of this medical specialty if taken for a longer continuance can consequence eyesight but this is non a fact in this instance. Besides. there is no adept grounds on record to demo that usage of this medical specialty caused harm to the patient’s seeing. Even for argument’s interest. if it is accepted that this medical specialty caused harm to the patient’s seeing. if the Respondent-doctor is one who has advised his patient to utilize this medical specialty after an scrutiny in which he found the patient to be enduring from malaria. in that instance every bit good the doctor-Respondent can non be held guilty of carelessness or deficient in his service. However. as stated above in this instance the medical specialty has been used by the patient in low doses for a few yearss and there is no adept grounds to demo that the usage of medical specialty has affected his seeing. Therefore. th e Complainant-Appellant has failed to turn out that the Respondent was negligent and deficient in his responsibility as a physician. Proof of Medical Negligence It has been held in different judgements by the National Commission and by the Hon’ble Supreme Court that a charge of professional carelessness against a physician stood on a different terms from a charge of carelessness against a driver of a vehicle. The load of cogent evidence is correspondingly greater on the individual who alleges carelessness against a physician. It is a known fact that even with a physician with the best accomplishments. things sometimes go incorrect during medical intervention or in a surgery. A physician is non to be held negligent merely because something went incorrect. It is an admitted fact that the Complainant’s seeing was non restored after the operation was conducted by the Appellant but on this land entirely a physician can non be held negligent because even after following all necessary safeguards and care the consequence of the operation may non be satisfactory since it depends on assorted other factors. The contention of the Appellant was that the patient was enduring from diabetes and blood force per unit area and in many such instances eyesight is non restored after the operation nevertheless carefully it is done. In this instance. there is nil on record to demo that something went incorrect due to an act of the Appellant-doctor. There is no grounds to come to the decision that the Appellant fell below the criterion of a reasonably competent practician in their field. so much so that their behavior might be meriting of animadversion. The Appellant can non be apt for carelessness because person else of better accomplishment or cognition would hold prescribed a different method of operation in different manner. The grounds suggests that the Appellant has performed the operation and acted in conformity with the pattern on a regular basis accepted and adopted by him in this infirmary and several patients are on a regular basis treated for their oculus jobs. The Hon’ble Supreme Court in the instance of Dr. Laxman Balkrishna vs. Dr. Triambak. Air 1969 Supreme Court page 128 has held the above position and this position has been farther confirmed in the instance of the Indian Medical Association vs. Santha. The Apex Court and the National Commission has held that the accomplishment of a medical practician dif fers from physician to physician and it is an incumbent upon the Complainant to turn out that the Appellant was negligent in the line of intervention that resulted in the loss of seeing. A Judge can happen a physician guilty merely when it is proved that he has fallen short of a criterion of sensible medical attention. The fact and fortunes of the instance before us show that the Appellant has attended to the patient with due attention. accomplishment. and diligence. Simply because the patient’s seeing was non restored satisfactorily. this history entirely is non evidences for keeping the physician guilty of carelessness and deficient in his responsibility. It is settled jurisprudence that it is for the Complainant to turn out the carelessness or lack in service by abducing adept grounds or sentiment and this fact is to be proved beyond all sensible uncertainty. Mere allegation of carelessness will be of no aid to the Complainant. The undermentioned instances of alleged medical carelessness provide an penetration into how the concluding determination is reached by the judicial organic structures. â€Å"All medical carelessness instances concern assorted inqui ries of fact. when we say load of turn outing carelessness lies on the Complainant. it means he has the undertaking of converting the tribunal that his version of the facts is the right one† . No adept sentiment has been produced by the Complainant to belie the study of the Board of Doctors. The entreaty of the Complainant was dismissed with costs as â€Å"No adept sentiment has been produced by him. † In a instance of an improper brotherhood of the kneecap. no expert has been produced by the Complainant to turn out carelessness of the opposite party. Therefore. it can non be said with exactitude that intervention of the Complainant by the opposite party was against the norms prescribed under the medical law or that the opposite party in any manner was negligent or deficient in the public presentation of his responsibilities. â€Å"Allegation of medical carelessness is a serious issue and it is for the individual who sets up the instance to turn out carelessness based on stuff on record or by manner of evidence† . The ailment of medical carelessness was dismissed because the applier failed to set up and turn out any case of medical carelessness. â€Å"Merely because the operation did non win. the physician can non be said to be negligent† and the ent reaty of the physician was allowed. â€Å"A mere allegation will non do a instance of carelessness unless it is proved by dependable grounds and is supported by adept evidence† and the entreaty was dismissed. â€Å"The committee can non represent itself into an adept organic structure and belie the statement of the physician unless there is something contrary on the record by manner of an adept sentiment or there is any medical treatise on which trust could be based† and the Revision request of the physician was allowed. In another instance. an X-ray study indicated a little opacity that similar to an opaque shadow that becomes seeable for many causes other than a concretion. It could non be assumed that still lapidate existed in the right kidney that had non been operated upon. Under the fortunes. we do non believe that any instance of carelessness has been made by the Complainant. This request is. hence. allowed. The Need for Expert Evidence in Medical Negligence Cases The Commission can non represent itself into an adept organic structure and belie the statement of the physician unless there is something contrary on the record by manner of an adept sentiment or there is any medical treatise on which trust could be based. In this instance there was a false allegation of urinary rock non being removed as shown by a shadow in the xray â€Å"The load of turn outing the negligent act or incorrect diagnosing was on the Complainant† and the entreaty was dismissed in another instance of alleged medical carelessness as no adept grounds was produced. The instance discussed below is non a instance of evident carelessness on the portion of the sawbones in carry oning the operation. but about the quality of the home base used for repairing the bone. In the present instance. the Complainant has non produced any adept informants to turn out that there was any mistake in the public presentation of the operations. Arrested development of the castanetss by u tilizing home bases is one of the recognized manners of intervention in the instance of break of the castanetss. If the opposite party has adopted the aforesaid method. though later the home base broke. carelessness can non be attributed to the physician. This is non a instance where the lesions of the operation were infected or any other complication arose. Breaking of the home base about 6 months after it was placed can non be attributed towards a negligent act of the physician in executing the operation. The District Forum justly held that the Complainant had failed to turn out his instance. There is nil on the record to propose that there has been any carelessness and/or lack in service on the portion of the Appellant except the unwritten entry of the Respondent/Complainant. In such instances. before coming to a positive determination. there must be adept grounds on record as has been held both by the National Commission every bit good as the Apex Court. â€Å"As per the settled jurisprudence. the burden to turn out that there was negligence† lack in service on the portion of the opposite parties. while naming and handling the Complainant. lay to a great extent on the Complainant. In the given facts. the Complainant has fai led to dispatch the burden that was on him. The ailment was dismissed as the Complainant failed to dispatch the burden to turn out carelessness or lack in service. In medical carelessness instances. it is for the patient to set up his instance against the medical professional and non for the medical professional to turn out that he acted with sufficient attention and accomplishment. Mention to the determination of the Madhya Pradesh High Court in the instance of Smt. Sudha Gupta and Ors. vs. State of M. P. and Ors. . 1999 ( 2 ) MPLJ 259. The National committee has besides taken the same position detecting that a bad luck during operation can non be said to be lack or carelessness in medical services. Negligence has to be established and can non be presumed. Mention to the determination of the National Commission in the instance of Kanhiya Kumar Singh vs. Park Medicare and Research Centre. III ( 1999 ) CPJ 9 ( NC ) – ( 2000 ) NCJ ( NC ) 12. A similar position has been taken by the MRTP Commission in the instance of P. K. Pandeyvs. Sufai Nursing Home. I ( 1999 ) CPJ 65 ( MRTP ) – 2000 NCJ ( MRTP ) 268. Followed by this. refer to the Commission in Vaqar Mohammed Khan and Anr. vs. Dr. S. K. Tandon. II ( 2000 ) CPJ 169. Both the lower Fora have held that there is no grounds brought on record by the Complainant to demo that there was any carelessness by the Respondent while engrafting the lens in the oculus of the Complainant resulting in a persistent job in the left oculus. The Complainant does non analyze any expert on the topic to set up his allegation of carelessness on the portion of the physician. Unfortunate though the incident is. the Complainant needs to set up carelessness on the portion of the physician to win in a instance like this. We may detect that there is barely any telling stuff to confirm the allegation contained in the request of Complainant. Under the fortunes. we can non but hold that the Complainant has failed to turn out the allegations against the opposite parties. As held by the National Commission in Sethuraman Subramaniam Iyer vs. Triveni Nursing Home and anr. . 1998 CTJ7. in the absence of such grounds sing the cause of decease and absence of any adept medical grounds. t he Complainants have failed to turn out carelessness on the portion of the opposite parties. In order to make up ones mind whether carelessness is established in any peculiar instance. the alleged act. skip. or class of behavior that is the topic of the ailment must be judged non by ideal criterions nor in the abstract but against the background of the fortunes in which the intervention in inquiry was given. The true trial for set uping carelessness on the portion of a physician is as to whether he has been proven guilty of such failure as no physician with ordinary accomplishments would be guilty of if moving with sensible attention. Merely because a medical process fails. it can non be stated that the medical practician is guilty of carelessness unless it is proved that the medical practician did non move with sufficient attention and accomplishment and the load of turn outing this rests upon the individual who asserts it. The responsibility of a medical practician arises from the fact that he does something to a human being that is likely to do physical harm unless it is non done with proper attention and accomplishment. There is no inquiry of guarantee. project. or profession of a accomplishment. The criterion of attention and accomplishment to fulfill the responsibility in civil wrong is that of the ordinary competent medical practician exerting an ordinary grade of professional accomplishment. As per the jurisprudence. a suspect charged with carelessness can unclutter himself if he shows that he acted in conformity with the general and approved pattern. It is non required in the discharge of his responsibility of attention that he should utilize the highest grade of accomplishment. since this may neer be acquired. Even a divergence from normal professional pattern is non necessary in all instances evident of carelessness. DecisionThe Hon’ble Mr. Justice Markendeya Katju has done yeoman service for society by rendering this judgement. On one manus. it sets at remainder the bad nature of our judicial adjudication of medical carelessness liability and on the other. it copiously clarifies that unless there is leading facie grounds bespeaking medical carelessness. notice either to a physician or infirmary can non be issued. At the same clip. the nucleus kernel of the judgement makes it really clear that there can non be an premise that physicians can non be negligent while rendering attention and intervention. I think this timely intercession should be disseminated at a popular degree so that the mandated Supreme Court’s prescription will be observed more in pattern than in breach. Mentions: [ 2 ] . E. Pincoffs. â€Å"Quandry Ethics† . 80 Mind 552-571( 1971 ) .[ 3 ] . E. H. Loewy et Al. Textbook of Health attention Ethical motives.71 ( 2004 ) .[ 4 ] . Ibid.[ 5 ] . Air 1989 Scandium 2039[ 6 ] . Air 1969 SC 128[ 7 ] . Smt. Savitri Singh v. Dr. Ranbir PD. Singh and others. 2004 ; ( 1 ) CPJ 25 ( Bihar ) [ 8 ] . Smt. Vimlesh Dixit v. Dr. R. K. Singhal. 2004 ; ( I ) CPJ 123 ( Uttaranchal ) [ 9 ] . Dr. Kamta Prasad Singh v. Nagina Prasad. 2000 ; ( III ) CPJ 283 ( WB ) [ 10 ] . Ajay Kumar v. Dr. Devendra Nath. 2004 ; ( II ) CPJ 482. [ 11 ] . Dr. Akhil Kumar Jain v. Lallan Prasad. 2004 ; ( II ) CPJ 504. [ 12 ] . Amar Singh v. Frances Newton Hospital and Anr. 2001 ; ( I ) CPJ 8. [ 13 ] . Mam Chand v. Dr. GS Mangat of Mangat Hospital. 2004 ; ( I ) CPJ 79 ( NC ) [ 14 ] . Dr. ( Smt ) Kumud Garg v. Raja Bhatia. 2004 ; ( I ) CPJ 369. [ 15 ] . Smt. Vimlesh Dixit v. Dr. R. K. Singhal. 2004 ; ( I ) CPJ 123 ( Uttaranchal ) [ 16 ] . Air 1989 SC 2039. [ 17 ] . Dr. Harkanwaljit Singh Saini v. Gurbax Singh and Anr. 2003 ; ( I ) CPJ 153 ( NC ) [ 18 ] . Dr. Karkanwaljit Singh Saini v. Gurbax Singh and another. 2003 ; ( I ) CPJ 153 ( NC ) [ 19 ] . Ns Sahota v. New Ruby Hospital and Ors. 2000 ; ( II ) CPJ 345. [ 20 ] . Sardool Singh v. Muni Lal Chopra and another. 1999 ; ( I ) CPJ 64 ( Punjab ) [ 21 ] . Dr. Manjit Singh Sandhu v. Uday Kant Thakur and others. 2002 ; ( III ) CPJ 242. [ 22 ] . Director. Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute and Research Centre and Ors. 2003 ; ( I ) CPJ 305 ( Delhi ) [ 23 ] . Director. Rajiv Gandhi Cancer Institute and Research Centre and Ors. 2003 ; ( I ) CPJ 305 ( Delhi ) [ 24 ] . Marble City Hospital and Research Centre and Ors. v. V. R. Soni. 2004 ; ( II ) CPJ 102 ( MP ) [ 25 ] . Nirmalendu Paul v. Dr. P. K. Bakshi and anr. 2000 ; ( III ) CPJ 79. [ 26 ] . Surinder Kumar ( Laddi ) and anr. V. Dr. Santosh Menon and Ors. 2000 ; ( III ) CPJ 517. [ 27 ] . Rajinder Singh v. Batra Hospital and Medical Research Centre and Anr. 2000 ; ( III ) CPJ 558.